משתמש:אביעד/אָרגז חול2 – הבדלי גרסאות
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שורה 70:
==Origins==
The [[Transfeminism|transfeminist]] theorist and author [[Julia Serano]] argues in her book ''[[Whipping Girl]]'' that transphobia is rooted in [[sexism]]. She locates the origins of both transphobia and homophobia in what she calls "oppositional sexism", the belief that male and female are "rigid, mutually exclusive categories, each possessing a unique and nonoverlapping set of attributes, aptitudes, abilities, and desires". Serano contrasts oppositional sexism with "traditional sexism", the belief that males and [[masculinity]] are superior to females and [[femininity]]. Furthermore, she writes that transphobia is fueled by insecurities people have about gender and gender norms.<ref name="serano">Julia Serano. ''Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity'', Seal Press, 2007. {{ISBN
The transgender author and critic Jody Norton believes that transphobia is an extension of homophobia and [[misogyny]]. She argues that transgender people, like gays and lesbians, are hated and feared for challenging and undermining [[Gender role|gender norms]] and the [[gender binary]]. Norton writes that the "male-to-female transgender incites transphobia through her implicit challenge to the binary division of gender upon which male cultural and political hegemony depends".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Norton|first=Jody|title="Brain Says You're a Girl, But I Think You're a Sissy Boy": Cultural Origins of Transphobia|journal=International Journal of Sexuality and Gender Studies|year=1997|volume=2, Number 2|pages=139–164|doi=10.1023/A:1026320611878|issue=2}}</ref>
שורה 154:
[[Radical feminist]]s that hold antagonistic views of transgender people, particularly against trans women, are commonly called [[TERF]]s, or trans exclusionary radical feminists.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title = Trans-Exclusionary Radical Feminism: What Exactly Is It, And Why Does It Hurt?|url = http://www.huffingtonpost.com/kelsie-brynn-jones/transexclusionary-radical-terf_b_5632332.html|website = The Huffington Post|accessdate = 2015-12-24}}</ref> Radical feminist [[Janice Raymond]]'s 1979 book, ''The Transsexual Empire'', was and still is controversial due to its unequivocal condemnation of transsexual surgeries. In the book Raymond says, "All transsexuals rape women's bodies by reducing the real female form to an artifact, appropriating this body for themselves .... Transsexuals merely cut off the most obvious means of invading women, so that they seem non-invasive."<ref name="Raymond 1994">{{Cite journal|last=Raymond|first=J.|year=1994|title=The Transsexual Empire|publisher=Teachers College Press|edition=2nd|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> Raymond also authored a paper in the 1980s which the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services]] used to deny trans people access to transgender-specific healthcare.<ref name=":0" />
Perhaps the most visible site of conflict between feminists and [[trans women]] has been the [[Michigan Womyn's Music Festival]]. The festival ejected a transsexual woman, Nancy Burkholder, in the early 1990s.<ref name="vangelder">Van Gelder, Lindsy; and Pamela Robin Brandt. "The Girls Next Door: Into the Heart of Lesbian America", p. 73. Simon and Schuster, {{ISBN
| last = Sreedhar
| first = Susanne
שורה 178:
| publisher = Sumach Press
| location = Toronto
|
| oclc = 70839321
| lccn =
שורה 210:
Outside Canada, not all rape survivors organisations refuse to support transsexual rape survivors. Wellington Independent Rape Crisis featured former [[sex worker]], [[New Zealand Labour Party]] MP and the world's first transsexual elected national representative [[Georgina Beyer]] on one of its "Take Back the Night" marches as a rape survivor herself, and Beyer has also assisted the Auckland-based HELP Foundation for sexual abuse counselling, prevention and support, appearing in a poster campaign to call for higher levels of government funding.{{citation needed|date=March 2014}}
Transsexual women such as [[Sandy Stone (artist)|Sandy Stone]] challenged the feminist conception of "biological woman". Stone worked as a sound engineer for [[Olivia Records]] from about 1974 to 1978, resigning as the controversy over a trans woman working for a lesbian-identified enterprise increased.<ref name="sayer">{{cite web|last=Sayer|first=Susan|title=From Lesbian Nation to Queer Nation|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6655/is_n2_v21/ai_n28666686/|publisher=Hecate|date=1995-10-01|accessdate=2012-04-07}}</ref> The debate continued in Raymond's book,<ref name="Raymond 1994"/> which devoted a chapter to criticism of "the transsexually constructed lesbian-feminist." Groups like [[Lesbian Organization of Toronto]] then voted to exclude trans lesbians.<ref name="ross1995">Ross, Becki (1995). ''The House that Jill Built: A Lesbian Nation in Formation.'' University of Toronto Press, {{ISBN
Jeffreys, Sheila (1997). Transgender Activism: A Lesbian Feminist Perspective. "Journal of Lesbian Studies", Vol. 1(3/4) 1997</ref>
שורה 218:
Transphobia is documented in the [[lesbian]], [[gay]] and [[bisexual]] ([[LGBT|LGB]]) communities, despite historic cooperation between these communities in campaigns for equality, such as in the [[Stonewall Riots]].<ref name=TransAdvocate1>{{cite web|last1=Williams|first1=Christian|title=Interview With an Actual Stonewall Riot Veteran: The Ciswashing of Stonewall Must End!|url=http://www.transadvocate.com/interview-with-an-actual-stonewall-riot-veteran-the-ciswashing-of-stonewall-must-end_n_8750.htm|website=transadvocate.com|accessdate=27 December 2014}}</ref><ref name=Prospect1>{{cite web|last1=Talusan|first1=Meridith|title=45 Years After Stonewall, the LGBT Movement Has a Transphobia Problem|url=http://prospect.org/article/45-years-after-stonewall-lgbt-movement-has-transphobia-problem|website=prospect.org|publisher=Prospect|accessdate=27 December 2014}}</ref><ref name=TheFrisky>{{cite web|last1=Brink|first1=Rebecca Vipond|title=The Soapbox: On The Stonewall Rebellion's Trans History|url=http://www.thefrisky.com/2014-06-06/the-soapbox-on-the-stonewall-rebellions-trans-history/|website=thefrisky.com|publisher=Spin Entertainment|accessdate=27 December 2014}}</ref><ref name=AutoStraddle>{{cite web|author=Cara|title=Yet Another News Outlet Fails Queer History 101 by Erasing Trans* People from Stonewall|url=http://www.autostraddle.com/yet-another-news-outlet-fails-queer-history-101-by-erasing-trans-people-from-stonewall-154998/|website=autostraddle.com|accessdate=27 December 2014}}</ref>
Authors and observers, such as transgender author Jillian Todd Weiss, have written that "there are social and political forces that have created a split between gay/lesbian communities and bisexual/transgender communities, and these forces have consequences for civil rights and community inclusion. 'Biphobia' and 'transphobia' are a result of these social and political forces, not psychological forces causing irrational fears in aberrant individuals."<ref name="weiss2004">{{cite journal | last1 = Weiss | first1 = JT | year = 2004 | title = GL vs BT The archaeology of biphobia and transphobia within U.S. gay and lesbian community | url = | journal = [[Journal of Bisexuality]] | volume = 3 | issue = | pages = 25–55 | doi=10.1300/j159v03n03_02}}</ref><ref name="sears">Sears, J.T., and Williams, W.L. (1997). Overcoming Heterosexism and Homophobia. New York: Columbia University Press.</ref><ref name=":fone">Fone, B.R.S. (1998). ''The Columbia Anthology of Gay Literature: Readings from Western Antiquity to the Present Day.'' Columbia University Press, {{ISBN
==== Gay and lesbian communities ====
שורה 225:
Historian [[Joanne Meyerowitz]] documented transphobia within the [[gay rights movement]] in the mid 20th century in response to publicity surrounding the transition of [[Christine Jorgensen]]. Jorgensen, who made frequent [[Homophobia|homophobic]] remarks and insisted she was not connected to or identified with gay men, was a polarizing figure among activists:
<blockquote>In 1953, for example, ''ONE'' magazine published a debate among its readers as to whether gay men should denounce Jorgensen. In the opening salvo, the author Jeff Winters accused Jorgensen of a "sweeping disservice" to gay men. "As far as the public knows," Winters wrote, "you were merely another unhappy homosexual who decided to get drastic about it." For Winters, Jorgensen's story simply confirmed the false belief that all men attracted to other men must be basically feminine," which, he said, "they are not." Jorgensen's precedent, he thought, encouraged the "reasoning" that led "to legal limitations upon the homosexual, mandatory injections, psychiatric treatment – and worse." In the not-so-distant past, scientists had experimented with castrating gay men.<ref name="mayerowitz2002">Meyerowitz, Joanne (2002). ''How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States.'' Harvard University Press {{ISBN
Several prominent figures in [[second wave feminism]] have also been accused of transphobic attitudes, culminating in 1979 with the publication of ''[[The Transsexual Empire]]'' by [[Radical feminism|radical lesbian feminist]] [[Janice Raymond]], who popularized the term ''[[shemale]]'' as derogatory slur referring to [[trans women]] in 1994,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Raymond|first=J.|year=1994|title=The Transsexual Empire|publisher=Teachers College Press|edition=2nd}}</ref> and her statements on transsexuality and transsexuals have been criticized by many in the [[LGBT]] and [[feminism|feminist]] communities as extremely [[transphobic]] and as constituting [[hate speech]].<ref name="rose2004">Rose, Katrina C. (2004) "The Man Who Would be Janice Raymond." ''Transgender Tapestry'' 104, Winter 2004</ref><ref name="serano2007">[[Julia Serano]] (2007) ''Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity'', pp. 233-234</ref><ref name="namaste2000">Namaste, Viviane K. (2000) ''Invisible Lives: The Erasure of Transsexual and Transgendered People'', pp. 33-34.</ref><ref name="hayes2003">{{cite journal | last1 = Hayes | first1 = Cressida J | year = 2003 | title = Feminist Solidarity after Queer Theory: The Case of Transgender | url = | journal = Signs | volume = 28 | issue = 4| pages = 1093–1120 | doi=10.1086/343132}}</ref>
שורה 234:
In the early 1970s, conflicts began to emerge due to different syntheses of lesbian, [[feminist]] and transgender political movements, particularly in the United States. San Francisco trans activist and entertainer [[Beth Elliott]] became the focus of debate over whether to include transgender lesbians in the movement, and she was eventually blacklisted by her own movement.<ref name="rubin2003">Henry Rubin (2003). ''Self-made Men: Identity and Embodiment Among Transsexual Men.'' Vanderbilt
University Press, {{ISBN
==== Bisexual communities and binarism====
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