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משתמש:Ori22/אנטי-קתוליות

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אנטי-קתוליות הוא מינוח כללי המתאר אפליה, עוינות או דיעות קדומות המופנים באופן ישיר כנגד הכנסייה הקתולית, אנשי הדת שלה או חבריה. גישה זו נובעת לרוב משנאת הדת או התרבות הקתולית. המינוח גם מתאים לרדיפות דת של קתולים או לאורינטציה דתית המתנגדת לקתוליות.[1]

אנטי קתוליות בראשית העת החדשה עריכה

בראשית העת החדשה, הכנסייה הקתולית נאבקה על מנת לנהל את התפקיד המסורתי והפוליטי שלה מול כוחות חילון אשר החלו לעלות באירופה. כתוצאה ממאבקים אלו בין הדת לבין כוחות החילון, עלתה עוינות כלפי כוחו הפוליטי, החברתי הספיריטואלי והדתי המובהק של האפיפיור והכמורה הקתולית. עוינות זו התבטאה באנטי קלרקליזם. על ירידת כוח זו, עלה בנוסף משבר תקופתי של סמכותה הרוחנית של הכנסייה. המשבר עלה בשל הרפורמה הפרטסטנטית אשר העלתה כוחות של קונפליקט קנאי דתי ולגל חזק של אנטי קתוליות. בימינו, אנטי קתוליות מתבטאת בצורות שונות אשר כוללות, רדיפותיהם כמיעוט דתי בקהילות מסוימות, תקיפות על ידי השלטונות ואפלייתם בידיהם, ביזוי כנסיות קתוליות ומקדשים והתקפות על אנשי הקהילה וכמריה.

מקורות התופעה עריכה

פרוטסנטיות וארצות נוצריות רפורמטיות עריכה

 
Passional Christi und Antichristi, by Lucas Cranach the Elder, from Luther's 1521 Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist. The Pope as the Antichrist, signing and selling indulgences.

רפורמטורים רבים כגון מרטין לותר, ז'אן קלווין, תומאס קרנמר זיהו את האפיפיור כהאנטיכריסט. בסיבוב החמישי של השיחות בין הכנסייה הלותרנית לכניסיה הקתולית נמסר: בשעה שקראו לאפיפיור אנטיכרייסט הלותרנים הראשונים המשיכו מסורת אשר תחילתה כבר במאה האחת עשרה. לא רק כופרים ובדלנים קראו כך לאפיפיור, אלא אפילו קדושים קראו כך לאפיפיור בשעה שרצו לנזוף בו על ניצול כוחו.[2]

Doctrinal materials of the Lutherans, Reformed churches, Presbyterians, Anabaptists, and Methodists contain references to the Pope as Antichrist.[3]

Referring to the Book of Revelation, Edward Gibbon stated that "The advantage of turning those mysterious prophecies against the See of Rome, inspired the Protestants with uncommon veneration for so useful as ally".[4] Protestants also condemned the Catholic policy of mandatory celibacy for priests, and the rituals of fasting and abstinence during Lent, as contradicting the clause stated in תבנית:Bibleverse, warning against doctrines that "forbid people to marry and order them to abstain from certain foods, which God created to be received with thanksgiving by those who believe and who know the truth." Partly as a result of the condemnation, many non-Catholic churches allow priests to marry and/or view fasting as a choice rather than an obligation.

בריטניה עריכה

אנטי קתוליות ממוסדת בבריטניה החלה ברפורמציה הבריטית תחת שלטונו של הנרי השמיני. אקט העליונות, של 1534 קבע כי המלוכה הבריטית היא השליט הראשי והיחיד של הכנסייה בבריטניה במקום האפיפיור. כל הבעת אמון לאפיפיור, נתפסה כבגידה מכיוון שהאפיפיורות נתפסה כבעלת כוח ספיריטואלי ופוליטי על חסידיה. תחת צו זה של המלוכה, תומאס מור וג'ון פישר הוצאו להורג ונהיו קדושים מעונים של הכנסייה הקתולית. אנטי קתוליוחת בקרב הבריטים, נבעה גם מהחשש כי האפיפיור, 

 that the pope sought to reimpose not just religio-spiritual authority over England but also secular power of the country; this was seemingly confirmed by various actions by the Vatican. In 1570, Pope Pius V sought to depose Elizabeth with the papal bull Regnans in Excelsis, which declared her a heretic and purported to dissolve the duty of all Elizabeth's subjects of their allegiance to her. This rendered Elizabeth's subjects who persisted in their allegiance to the Catholic Church politically suspect, and made the position of her Catholic subjects largely untenable if they tried to maintain both allegiances at once.

Later several accusations fueled strong anti-Catholicism in England including the Gunpowder Plot, in which Guy Fawkes and other Catholic conspirators where accused of planning to blow up the English Parliament while it was in session. The Great Fire of London in 1666 was blamed on the Catholics and an inscription ascribing it to 'Popish frenzy' was engraved on the Monument to the Great Fire of London, which marked the location where the fire started (this inscription was only removed in 1831). The "Popish Plot" involving Titus Oates further exacerbated Anglican-Catholic relations.

Since World War Two anti-Catholic feeling in England has much abated. Ecumenical dialogue between Anglicans and Catholics culminated in the first meeting of an Archbishop of Canterbury with a Pope since the Reformation when Archbishop Geoffrey Fisher visted Rome in 1960.[5] Since then, dialogue has continued through envoys and standing conferences.

Residual anti-Catholicism in England is represented by the burning of an effigy of the Catholic conspirator Guy Fawkes at local celebrations on Guy Fawkes Night every 5 November.[6] This celebration has, however, largely lost any sectarian connotation and the allied tradition of burning an effigy of the Pope on this day has been discontinued - except in the town of Lewes, Sussex.[7]

ארצות הברית עריכה

 
קריקטורה מפורסמת מ-1876 שצוירה על ידי תומאס נסט המראה בישוף כקרוקודיל התוקף בתי ספר ציבוריים בשעה שפולחיטיקאי אירי קתולי, מעלים עין

John Highham described anti-Catholicism as "the most luxuriant, tenacious tradition of paranoiac agitation in American history".[8] Anti-Catholicism which was prominent in the United Kingdom was exported to the United States. Two types of anti-Catholic rhetoric existed in colonial society. The first, derived from the heritage of the Protestant Reformation and the religious wars of the sixteenth century, consisted of the "Anti-Christ" and the "Whore of Babylon" variety and dominated Anti-Catholic thought until the late seventeenth century. The second was a more secular variety which focused on the supposed intrigue of the Catholics intent on extending medieval despotism worldwide.[9]

Historian Arthur Schlesinger Sr. has called Anti-Catholicism "the deepest-held bias in the history of the American people."[10]

American Anti-Catholicism has its origins in the Reformation which developed a deep-rooted antipathy for the Roman Church as a result of its long struggle to establish its independence outside the church. Because the Reformation was based on an effort to correct what it perceived to be errors and excesses of the Catholic Church, it formed strong positions against the Roman clerical hierarchy and the Papacy in particular. These positions were brought to the New World by British colonists who were predominantly Protestant, and who opposed not only the Roman Catholic Church but also the Church of England which, due to its perpetuation of Catholic doctrine and practices, was deemed to be insufficiently Reformed.

 
Rev. Branford Clarke illustration in Heroes of the Fiery Cross 1928 by Bishop Alma White Published by the Pillar of Fire Church in Zarephath, NJ

Because many of the British colonists, such as the Puritans and Congregationalists, were fleeing religious persecution by the Church of England, much of early American religious culture exhibited the more extreme anti-Catholic bias of these Protestant denominations. Monsignor John Tracy Ellis wrote that a "universal anti-Catholic bias was brought to Jamestown in 1607 and vigorously cultivated in all the thirteen colonies from Massachusetts to Georgia."[11] Colonial charters and laws contained specific proscriptions against Roman Catholics. Monsignor Ellis noted that a common hatred of the Roman Catholic Church could unite Anglican clerics and Puritan ministers despite their differences and conflicts.

Some of America's Founding Fathers held anti-clerical beliefs. For example, in 1788, John Jay urged the New York Legislature to require office-holders to renounce foreign authorities "in all matters ecclesiastical as well as civil." [12]. Thomas Jefferson wrote: "History, I believe, furnishes no example of a priest-ridden people maintaining a free civil government,"[13] and, "In every country and in every age, the priest has been hostile to liberty. He is always in alliance with the despot, abetting his abuses in return for protection to his own."[14]

Anti-Catholic animus in the United States reached a peak in the nineteenth century when the Protestant population became alarmed by the influx of Catholic immigrants. Fearing the end of time, some American Protestants who believed they were God's chosen people, went so far as to claim that the Catholic Church was the Whore of Babylon in the Book of Revelation.[15] The resulting "nativist" movement, which achieved prominence in the 1840s, was whipped into a frenzy of anti-Catholicism that led to mob violence, the burning of Catholic property, and the killing of Catholics.[16] This violence was fed by claims that Catholics were destroying the culture of the United States. Irish Catholic immigrants were blamed for raising the taxes of the countryתבנית:Fact as well as for spreading violence and disease. The nativist movement found expression in a national political movement called the Know-Nothing Party of the 1850s, which (unsuccessfully) ran former president Millard Fillmore as its presidential candidate in 1856.

Most states passed a state constitutional amendment, called "Blaine Amendments, forbidding tax money be used to fund parochial schools, a possible outcome with heavy immigration from Catholic Ireland after the 1840s. In 2002, the United States Supreme Court partially vitiated these amendments, in theory, when they ruled that vouchers were constitutional if tax dollars followed a child to a school, even if it were religious. However, no state school system had, by 2009, changed its laws to allow this.[17]

מדינות קתוליות עריכה

אנטי קלרקיזם היא תנועה היסטורית אשר מתנגדת לכוח הממוסד של הדת הקתולית ועל השפעותיה בכל האספקטים של החיים הציבוריים והפוליטיים. כמו כן מתנגדת התנועה למעורבות הכנסייה בחיי היום יום של האזרח. 

  (  It suggests a more active and partisan role than mere laïcité. The goal of anti-clericalism is sometimes to reduce religion to a purely private belief-system with no public profile or influence. However, many times it has included outright suppression of all aspects of faith.

Anti-clericalism has at times been violent, leading to murders and the desecration, destruction and seizure of church property. Anti-clericalism in one form or another has existed throughout most of Christian history, and is considered to be one of the major popular forces underlying the 16th century reformation. Some of the philosophers of the Enlightenment, including Voltaire, continually attacked the Catholic Church, both its leadership and priests, claiming that many of its clergy were morally corrupt. These assaults in part led to the suppression of the Jesuits, and played a major part in the wholesale attacks on the very existence of the Church during the French Revolution in the Reign of Terror and the program of dechristianization. Similar attacks on the Church occurred in Mexico and in Spain in the twentieth century.

ברזיל עריכה

בברזיל מספר הקתולים הרב ביותר בעולם.ref name="Census2000">[http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/censo2000/populacao/religiao_Censo2000.pdf IBGE - Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics). Religion in Brazil - 2000 Census]. Accessed 2009-01-06</ref>, בשל כך, לא פעלו במדינה תנועות אנטי קתוליות משמעותיות. גם בתקופת היסטוריה של ברזיל: דיקטטורה צבאית בה הכנסייה המקומית גיבשה גישה שמרנית, לא צידדו תנועות השמאל בפעילות אנטי קתולית. (instead, the Liberation theology gained force). However, with the growing number of Protestants (especially Neo-Pentecostals) in the country, anti-Catholicism has gained strength. A pivotal moment of the rising anti-Catholicism was the kicking of the saint episode in 1995. However, owing to the protests of the Catholic majority, the perpetrator was dispatched to Africa.

צרפת עריכה

בזמן המהפכה הצרפתית,(1795-1789) רכוש הכנסייה עוקל על ידי הממשלה החדשה כחלק מתהליך שלילת הלגיטימציה של הנצרות. הפלישה הצרפתית לאיטליה בין 1796 ל-1799 כללה גם התקפה על רומא והגליתו של האפיפיור פיוס השישי ב-1798. יחסי בכניסיה מדינה השתפרו בין השנים 1802 ל-1870. בתקופת הרפובליקה השלישית, המדינה חוברה בעיקר בעזרת גישה אנטי כמרית בשל התשוקה לחילון המדינה וחיי חברה, ערכים שנבעו מהמהפכה. [[F[18] In the Affaire Des Fiches, in France in 1904–1905, it was discovered that the militantly anticlerical War Minister under Emile Combes, General Louis André, was determining promotions based on the French Masonic Grand Orient's huge card index on public officials, detailing which were Catholic and who attended Mass, with the goal of preventing their promotions.[19]

מקסיקו עריכה

בעקבות המהפכה המקסיקנית של 1860, הנשיא שגובה על ידי ארצות-הברית, בניטו חוארס הוציא צו אשר קבע כי כל רכוש הכנסייה הקתולית יולאם, הפריד את הכנסייה מהמדינה וגם דיכא מיסדרים דתיים. חוקת 1917 אשר התקבלה אחרי מהפכת 1910, הכילה סעיפים רבים אנטי קלריקלים. סעיף 3 קרא לחינוך חילוני בבתי הספר ואסר על הכנסייה להיות מעורבת בחינוך היסודי. סעיף 5 הוציא מן החוק מסדרים מנזריים, סעיף 24 קבע כי אסור לסגוד לאל מחוץ לתחום הכנסייה. סעיף 27 קבע הגבלות על זכות ארגוני דת להחזיק רכוש. סעיף 130 מקפח את הכמורה המקסיקנית מזכותיה הפוליטיות הבסיסיות. אכיפת החוקים האנטי קתוליים של נשיא מקסיקו, פלוטרקו אליאס קייס אשר גולמו בחוק על שמו, חוק קייס, עוררו את הבישופות המקסיקנית להשהות את כל הפולחן הקתולי במקסיקו מהאחד באוגוסט 1926 והציתו לבסוף את מלחמת קריסטרו בין השנים 1926-1929. מלחמה אשר בה, 50 אלף איכרים נרתמו כנגד המלחמה. סיסמתם הייתה יחי המלך ישו. דיכוי הכנסייה בא לידי ביטוי בסגירת כנסיות רבות, הריגת כמרים רבים ואילוצם להתחתן. הרדיפות החמורות ביותר התחוללו במחוז טבאסקו תחת שלטונו הצורמני של המושל האתאיסט, תומאס גרידו קנאבל. האפקט של המלחמה על הכנסייה היה עמוק. בין 1926 ל-1934, לפחות 40 כמרים נהרגו.[20] Where there were 4,500 priests serving the people before the rebellion, in 1934 there were only 334 priests licensed by the government to serve fifteen million people, the rest having been eliminated by emigration, expulsion and assassination.[20][21] It appears that ten states were left without any priests.[22] Other sources, indicate that the persecution was such that by 1935, 17 states were left with no priests at all.[23]

Some of the Catholic casualties of this struggle are known as the Saints of the Cristero War.[20][24] Events relating to this were famously portrayed in the novel The Power and the Glory by Graham Greene.[25][26] The persecution of Catholics was most severe in the state of Tabasco under the Governor Tomás Garrido Canabalתבנית:Fact. Under the rule of Garrido many priests were killed, all Churches in the state were closed and priests who still survived were forced to marry or flee at risk of losing their livesתבנית:Fact.

האיטי עריכה

פרנסואה דובליה ואביו ז'אן קלוד דובליה שליטים עריצים של האיטי, רצו להחליש את השליטה של הכנסייה הקתולית על ידי "קבלת הוודו המקומי בידיים פתוחות לתוך הפוליטיקה המקומית" לפי הספר של מישל ס. לגרה: "ודו ופוליטיקה בהאיטי.

ספרד עריכה

אנטי קלריקליות בספרד בתחילת מלחמת האזרחים הספרדית הסתיימה בהריגתם של כמעט 7000 כמרים, השמדתן של מאות כנסיות ורדיפה אחר עמאים רבים בתקופת הטרור האדום. [27] מאות קדושים מעונים של מלחמת האזרחים בורכו עד אוקטובר 2007 [28][29]

קולומביה עריכה

נטייה אנתי קתולית ואנטי כמרית הופצה על ידי מחוללי קנוניות. התופעה רוחחה בעיקר במחצית המאה העשרים והובילה לרדיפת קתולים והריגתם בעיקר את הכמרים.האירועים אף העניקו לתקופה את שמה, תקופת האלימות. [30]

גרמניה הנאצית עריכה

אחת מאמונותיו של אדולף היטלר אודות הגזע הארי לגבי מוצאם הייתה היותם פרוטסנטים מעצם היותם ארים ובשל כך, קתולים אינם ארים אמיתיים. בשל כך, בפולין הכבושה מעל שלושה מיליון קתולים נהרגו ואלפים נכלאו במחנות ריכוז נאצים.

פולין עריכה

הקתולים בפולין, (דתם של מירב האוכלוסייה), נרדפו במלחמת העולם השנייה בעקבות הפלישה הנאצית וסיפוחה של פולין לגרמניה. מספר רב שלא ניתן לשערו של קתולים ממוצא פולני ושניתן להעריכם באלפים, נרצחו בשואה. ב-1999, 108 מתוכם אשר כוללים בין השאר שלושה בישופים, 52 כמרים, 26 נזירים, שלושה תלמידי סמינרי כמרים, שמונה נזירות 3 seminarians, 8 nuns and 9 lay people, were beatified by Pope John Paul II as the 108 Martyrs of World War Two.

Catholicism continued to be persecuted under the Communist regime from the 1950s. Current Stalinist ideology claimed the Church and religion in general was about to disintegrate. To begin with Archbishop Wyszyński entered into an agreement with the Communist authorities, which was signed on 14 February 1950 by the Polish episcopate and the government. The Agreement regulated the matters of the Church in Poland. However, in May of that year, the Sejm breached the Agreement by passing a law for the confiscation of Church property.

On 12 January 1953, Wyszyński was elevated to the rank of cardinal by Pius XII as another wave of persecution began in Poland. When the bishops voiced their opposition to state interference in ecclesiastical appointments, mass trials and the internment of priests began - the cardinal being one of its victims. On 25 September 1953 he was imprisoned at Grudziądz, and later placed under house arrest in monasteries in Prudnik near Opole and in Komańcza in the Bieszczady Mountains. He was not released until 26 October 1956.

Pope John Paul II, who was born in Poland as Karol Wojtyla, often cited the persecution of Polish Catholics in his stance against Communism.

ארצות נוצריות אורתודוקסיות עריכה

גישה אנטי קתולית אשר פחות מוכרת במערב היא האנטי קתוליות בארצות בהן הכנסיות האורתודקסיות או המיזרחיות גברו על הזרמים האחרים לאורך ההיסטוריה. הרדיפות והדיעות הקדומות כלפי קתולים בארצות אלו מתוארך כבר ל-1054, השנה בה חל פילוג הכנסייה הנוצרית בין הכנסיות המיזרחיות למערביות. This anti-Roman Catholicsm may stem from perceived atrocities of the Roman Catholic church against the Orthodox including the Sack of Constantinople which involved the murdering Orthodox Clergy this after the same occurred in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre during the First Crusade which culminated into the establishment of the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem of the Kingdom of Jerusalem which was created over the Orthodox clergy. This along with the looting, conversion of Orthodox Churches to Roman Catholic churches throughout the crusades. Including also the thief of sacred Christian relics, from Orthodox Christian Holy Sites like the church of Holy Wisdom. Both camps of Christians have traditionally viewed each other as heretics, and have excommunicated and anathematised each other repeatedly. Recent history has seen a good deal softening of official mutual antipathy. For example: marriages between Orthodox and Catholic couples are recognized by both communities as are numerous other sacraments. תבנית:Fact In some cases in modern times the conflict has intensified like in the Balkans, this again maybe due to perceived atrocities committed by Roman Catholics, including forced conversion and then execution of the Serbian Orthodox by the Ustashe.[31] This done in order to insure that the converted Orthodox went to Heaven rather then, convert back to Orthodox Christianity.[32] For a one sided view of this, coverage is given in the section detailing the former Soviet Union, below, though that account is by no means exhaustive.תבנית:Fact

אנטי קתוליות בתרבות פופולרית עריכה

ספרות עריכה

סטריוטיפים אנטי קתוליים רווחו שנים רבות בספרות האנגלו סקסונית, ספרות פופולרית אוף ספרות פורנוגרפית. ספרות גותית עשירה בדימויים אלו. כמרים רוויי תשוקה, אם מנזר אכזרית, נזירות כלואות ואינקויזיטורים אכזריים מופיעים ביצירות כמו האיטלקי של אן רדקליף, הנזיר של מתיו לואיס, 

[[   Melmoth the Wanderer by Charles Maturin and "The Pit and the Pendulum" by Edgar Allan Poe.[33]

Such gothic fiction may have inspired Rebecca Reed's Six Months in a Convent which describes her alleged captivity by an Ursuline order near Boston in 1832.[34][35] Reed's claims inspired an angry mob to burn down the convent, and her narrative, released three years later as the rioters were tried, famously sold 200,000 copies in one month. Reed's book was soon followed by another bestselling fraudulent exposé, Awful Disclosures of the Hotel-Dieu Nunnery, (1836) in which Maria Monk claimed that the convent served as a harem for Catholic priests, and that any resulting children were murdered after baptism. Col. William Stone, a New York city newspaper editor, along with a team of Protestant investigators, inquired into Monk's claims, inspecting the convent in the process. Col. Stone's investigation concluded there was no evidence that Maria Monk "had ever been within the walls of the cloister".[36]

Reed's book became a best-seller, and Monk or her handlers hoped to cash in on the evident market for anti-Catholic horror fiction. The tale of Maria Monk was, in fact, clearly modeled on the Gothic novels popular in the early 19th century. This literary genre had already been used for anti-Catholic sentiments in works such as Matthew Lewis' The Monk. Maria Monk's story exhibits the genre-defining elements of a young and innocent woman trapped in a remote, old, and gloomily picturesque estate; she learns the dark secrets of the place; after harrowing adventures she escapes.[37][38]

The anti-Catholic Gothic tradition continued with Charlotte Brontë's semi-autobiographical novel Villette (1853). Bronte explores the culture clash between the heroine's English Protestantism and the Catholicism of the environment at her school in 'Villette' (aka Brussels) before magisterially pronouncing "God is not with Rome."[39]

Pornography has been a vehicle for anti-Catholic sentiments from Denis Diderot's La Religieuse (1798), to contemporary nunsploitation films. These latter, although often seen as pure exploitation films, often contain criticism against religion in general and the Catholic church in particular. Indeed, some of the protagonists voice a feminist consciousness and a rejection of their subordinated social role. For instance at the end of The Nun and the Devil, based on the true events of the suppression of the Convent of Sant Archagelo at Naples in the 16th century, a condemned nun launches a bitter attack against the church hierarchy. Many of these films were made in countries where the Catholic church is dominant, such as Italy and Spain.[40]

In a chapter of Fyodor Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov called The Grand Inquisitor, the Catholic Church convicts a returned-from-Heaven Jesus Christ of heresy and is portrayed as a servant of Satan.[41]

Dan Brown's best-selling novel The Da Vinci Code depicts the Catholic Church as determined to hide the truth about Mary Magdelene. An article in an April 2004 issue of National Catholic Register maintains that the "The Da Vinci Code claims that Catholicism is a big, bloody, woman-hating lie created out of pagan cloth by the manipulative Emperor of Rome". An earlier book by Brown Angels and Demons, depicts the Church as involved in an elemental battle with the Illuminati.

קולנוע עריכה

The Spanish film director Luis Buñuel was a fierce critic of what he saw as the pretension and hypocrisy of the Catholic Church. Many of his most famous films demonstrate this:

Un chien andalou (1929): A man drags pianos, upon which are piled several priests, among other things.

L'Âge d'or (1930): A bishop is thrown out a window, and in the final scene one of the culprits of the 120 days of Sodom by Marquis de Sade is portrayed by an actor dressed in a way that he would be recognized as Jesus.

Ensayo de un crimen (1955): A man dreams of murdering his wife while she's praying in bed dressed all in white.

Simon of the Desert (1965): The devil tempts the saint by taking the form of a naughty, bare-breasted little girl singing and showing off her legs. At the end of the film, the saint abandons his ascetic life to hang out in a jazz club.

Nazarin (1959): The pious lead character wreaks ruin through his attempts at charity.

Viridiana (1961): A well-meaning young nun tries unsuccessfully to help the poor.

The Milky Way (1969): Two men travel the ancient pilgrimage road to Santiago de Compostela and meet the embodiments of various heresies along the way. One dreams of anarchists shooting the Pope (recognisably Pope Paul VI).

The films of Buñuel (who reportedly 'thanked God he was an atheist') initially scandalised the Catholic church. For instance Viridiana was denounced by the Vatican and, in Catholic Spain, where the film was produced, an attempt was made to destroy all copies; Catholic Italy sentenced Buñuel, in absentia, to a year in jail, whilst in Catholic Belgium copies of the film were seized and mutilated. Latterly, however, there was a change of attitude. For instance the US National Catholic Film Office, gave Nazarin an award, recognising its spiritual value, and the heretical Milky Way was screened at the Festival of Cinema of Religious and Human Values in Valladolid. Some of Buñuel's free thinking friends even alleged that he had received Vatican money for the latter film. Ironically Buñuel's last months were enlivened by his friendship, in his last months, with a Catholic priest, Father Julian Pablo, with whom he indulged in theological wrangles over points of Catholic dogma.[42]

פולמוסים אנטי קתולים מודרניים עריכה

Themes of modern anti-Catholic controversialists included accusations of paganism, idolatry and conspiracy theories which accuse the church of seeking world domination. Protestant polemics also brand the Catholic Church as the Anti-Christ and the Whore of Babylon. One example of modern anti-Catholic polemic can be found in the writings of the American evangelical author John Dowling. In his best-sellingתבנית:Fact The History of Romanism, he accused the Catholic church of being 'the bitterest foe of all true churches of Christ—that she possesses no claim to be called a Christian church—but, with the long line of corrupt and wicked men who have worn her triple crown, that she is ANTI-CHRIST' (John Dowling, The History of Romanism 2nd edition, 1852, pp. 646–47).

 
Cover of a 1919 edition of Hislop's Anti-Catholic The Two Babylons

Alexander Hislop's psuedohistorical work, The Two Babylons (1858) asserted that the Roman Catholic Church originated from a Babylonian mystery religion, claiming that its doctrines and ceremonies are a veiled continuation of Babylonian paganism.

The renegade priest Charles Chiniquy's 50 Years In The Church of Rome and The Priest, the Woman and the Confessional (1885) also depicted Catholicism as pagan.

Avro Manhattan's books,Vatican Moscow Alliance (1982), The Vatican Billions (1983), and The Vatican's Holocaust (1986) advance the view that the Church engineers wars for world domination.

Hislop's and Chiniquy's nineteenth century polemics and Avro Manhattan's work form part of the basis of a series of tracts by the noted modern anti-Catholic and comic book evangelist Jack Chick who also accuses the papacy of supporting Communism, of using the Jesuits to incite revolutions, and of masterminding the Holocaust. According to Chick, the Catholic Church is the "Whore of Babylon" referred to in the Book of Revelation, and will bring about a Satanic New World Order before it is destroyed by Jesus Christ. Chick claims that the Catholic Church infiltrates and attempts to destroy or corrupt all other religions and churches, and that it uses various means including seduction, framing, and murder to silence its critics. Drawing on the ideas of Alberto Rivera, Chick also claims that the Catholic Church helped mould Islam as a tool to lure people away from Christianity in what he calls the Vatican Islam Conspiracy.

David Ranan’s Double Cross: The Code of the Catholic Church asks three questions: should the pope be sacked? Should the Vatican be dissolved? Can the Catholic Church be saved? His analysis of the Church’s history, dogma and present day strategies leads to the conclusion that the Catholic Church is incapable of accepting her culpability and therefore unlikely to change.[43]

Author David Yallop has followed up his best-selling book In God's Name (1984), which claimed that Pope John Paul I was killed by corrupt Vatican schemers (see Pope John Paul I conspiracy theories) with another The Power and the Glory: Inside the Dark Heart of John Paul II's Vatican (2007) which claims that Pope John Paul II was in league with Soviet power. Yallop enlarges on claims of priestly sexual abuse and repeats the other standard anti-Catholic tropes listed above together with a new one that St Maximilian Kolbe, the Polish priest who died in place of a young married man at Auschwitz, had previously endorsed the anti-Jewish Protocols of the Elders of Zion. There is no reference for this claim and just thirteen footnotes in the entire 530 pages.[44]

סאטירות והומורסקות אנטי קתוליות עריכה

הכנסייה הקתולית היוותה מטרה לסטירות והומור כבר מתקופת הרפורמציה ועד ימינו. הומור וסאטירה אלו נעו בין בורלסקות מתונות להתקפות ניבזיות. כמרים קתולים וארגונים כגון הליגה הקתולית, מבקרים את צורת ההומור הזו ותופסות אותו כמעליב ומשפיל. ארגונים אלו מהווים את הקול של הקתולים מול עלבונות אלו.[45]

Sexuality עריכה

Accusations of deviant sexuality have provided a rich field for anti-Catholic polemicists since the time of the Reformation.

Under Henry VIII, even before he broke with Rome, lurid tales of sexual deviancy by monks and nuns were part of the justification for the Dissolution of the Monasteries. According to a later commentator the alleged carnal misdeeds of the monks and nuns were recorded in a 'Black Book' wherein was recorded "the vile lives and abhominable factes in murders of their bretherene, in sodomyes and whordomes, in destroying children, in forging deedes and other horrors of life" (sic).[46] R.W. Dixon in his History of the Church of England justified the Dissolution of the monasteries on the grounds that they were under "the condemnation of Sodom and Gomorrah" i.e. some monks and nuns were homosexual.[47] Prior to the Dissolution its instigator Thomas Cromwell had decreed death by hanging for homosexuals through the Buggery Act of 1533: the first time the death penalty had been applied for this offence in England.[48]

In the twentieth century the Nazi government denounced the Catholic Church as "awash with sex fiends" (the Nazi Churches minister claimed that 7,000 clergy had been convicted of sex crimes between 1933 and 1937 while "the true figure seems to have been 170, of whom many had left the religious life prior to their offences.")[49] These accusations were part of a campaign by some members of the Nazi party, including Joseph Goebbels, to reduce the influence of the Catholic Church in Nazi Germany during the second half of the 1930s.[50]

Lately sexual abuse by representatives of the Catholic church has been highlighted in such films as The Magdalene Sisters (2002). However the veracity of the bestselling Kathy's Story by Kathy O'Beirne which details physical and sexual abuse suffered in a Magdalene laundry in Ireland has been questioned in a new book entitled Kathy's Real Story by Hermann Kelly. In this book it is alleged that false allegations against the priesthood are being fueled by a government compensation scheme for victims.[51][52]

Philip Jenkins, an Episcopalian and Professor of History and Religious Studies at Penn State University, published the 1996 book Pedophiles and Priests: Anatomy of a Contemporary Crisis in which he claims that the Catholic Church is being unfairly singled out by a secular media which he claims fails to highlight similar sexual scandals in other religious groups, such as the Anglican Communion, various Protestant churches, and the Jewish and Islamic communities. He also claims that the Catholic Church may have a lower incidence of molesting priests than Churches that allow married clergy because statistically child molestation generally occurs within families but Latin-rite Catholic priests do not have families, and the Catholic Church only allows married priests in a few of its rites. He also claims that the term "pedophile priests" widely used in the media, implies a distinctly higher rate of child molesters within the Catholic priesthood when in reality the incidence is lower than most other segments of society".[53]

אנטי קתוליות בימינו עריכה

ארצות הברית עריכה

Philip Jenkins, an Episcopalian historian, in The New Anti-Catholicism: The Last Acceptable Prejudice (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 0-19-515480-0) maintains that some people who otherwise avoid offending members of racial, religious, ethnic or gender groups have no reservations about venting their hatred of Catholics. Earlier in the twentieth century, Harvard professor Arthur M. Schlesinger, Sr. characterized prejudice against Catholics as "the deepest bias in the history of the American people",[54] and Pulitzer Prize-winning Mount Holyoke College professor Peter Viereck once commented that "Catholic baiting is the anti-Semitism of the liberals."[55]

A May 12, 2006, Gallup states that 30% of Americans have an unfavourable view of the Catholic faith with 57% having a favourable view. This is a higher unfavourability rate than in 2000, but considerably lower than in 2002. While Protestants and Catholics themselves had a majority with a favourable view, those who are not Christian or are irreligious had a majority with an unfavourable view, but in part this represented a negative view of all forms of Christianity. The Catholic Church's doctrines, the priest sex abuse scandal, and honoring Mary and asking saints to pray for or with the person praying were top issues for those who disapproved. On the other hand, Catholicism's view on homosexuality, and the celibate priesthood were low on the list of grievances for those who held an unfavourable view of Catholicism.[56] That stated a more recent Gallup Poll indicated only 4% of Americans have a "very negative" view of Catholics.[57]

Sexuality, contraception and abortion עריכה

Many feminists and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender activists criticize the Catholic Church for its policies on issues relating to sexuality, contraception and abortion. In 1989 members of the ACT UP and WHAM! disrupted a Sunday Mass at Saint Patrick’s Cathedral to protest the Church’s position on homosexuality, abortion, safer sex education and the use of condoms. One hundred and eleven protesters were arrested outside the Cathedral, and at least one protester inside threw used condoms at a Church altar and desecrated the Eucharist during Mass.[58]

אנטי קתוליות בתעשיית הבידור עריכה

According to James Martin, S.J. the U.S. entertainment industry is of "two minds" about the Catholic Church. He argues that,

On the one hand, film and television producers seem to find Catholicism irresistible. There are a number of reasons for this. First, more than any other Christian denomination, the Catholic Church is supremely visual, and therefore attractive to producers and directors concerned with the visual image. Vestments, monstrances, statues, crucifixes - to say nothing of the symbols of the sacraments - are all things that more "word oriented" Christian denominations have foregone. The Catholic Church, therefore, lends itself perfectly to the visual media of film and television. You can be sure that any movie about the Second Coming or Satan or demonic possession or, for that matter, any sort of irruption of the transcendent into everyday life, will choose the Catholic Church as its venue[59]

Second, the Catholic Church is still seen as profoundly "other" in modern culture and is therefore an object of continuing fascination. As already noted, it is ancient in a culture that celebrates the new, professes truths in a postmodern culture that looks skeptically on any claim to truth, and speaks of mystery in a rational, post-Enlightenment world. It is therefore the perfect context for scriptwriters searching for the "conflict" required in any story.[59]

Martin argues that, despite this fascination with the Catholic Church, the entertainment industry also holds contempt for the Church.[59]"It is as if producers, directors, playwrights and filmmakers feel obliged to establish their intellectual bona fides by trumpeting their differences with the institution that holds them in such thrall."[59] Martin suggests that "it is television that has proven the most fertile ground for anti- Catholic writing. Priests, when they appear on television shows, usually appear as pedophiles or idiots, and are rarely seen to be doing their jobs."[59]

One group that has systematically addressed anti-Catholicism is the Catholic League for Religious and Civil Rights which has organized protests and issued press releases over pop culture entertainment offerings and high-profile media events. Led by William Donohue, who also serves as the media spokesperson, the League interjects itself to present alternative views on many news stories. Martin indicates that "In October 1999 they purchased a full-page advertisement in הניו יורק טיימס denouncing Vanity Fair magazine for its alleged anti-Catholic slant."[60][61]

אנגליה עריכה

Since World War Two anti-Catholic feeling in England has much abated. Ecumenical dialogue between Anglicans and Catholics culminated in the first meeting of an Archbishop of Canterbury with a Pope since the Reformation when Archbishop Geoffrey Fisher visted Rome in 1960.[5] Since then, dialogue has continued through envoys and standing conferences.

Residual anti-Catholicism in England is represented by the burning of an effigy of the Catholic conspirator Guy Fawkes at local celebrations on Guy Fawkes Night every 5 November.[62] This celebration has, however, largely lost any sectarian connotation and the allied tradition of burning an effigy of the Pope on this day has been discontinued - except in the town of Lewes, Sussex.[63]

מדינות ברית המועצות לשעבר עריכה

הכנסייה האוקראינית היוונית הקתולית נרדפה רק בשל תפקידיה הדתיים בקהילה. אך בפעמים נוספות, הכנסייה הרוסית הפרבוסלבית תמרנה את הציבור על מנת לתקוף את הקתוליות בשל היות הפרבוסלבים גוף יותר רוסי לאומי במהותו.

ישראל עריכה

שורשי האנטי-קתוליות בישראל מקורם בייסוד המדינה כמדינה יהודית ב-1948 בשעה שמספר כפרים עם אוכלוסייה קתולית גדולה, כגון איקרית ובירעם, תושביהם גורשו בשל פעולות צה"ל. .[64] בנוסף על כך, כמרים קתולים הוגלו מהמדינה ותריסר כנסיות נכבשו, נסגרו או נאטמו מ-1948 ועד היום. לאחרונה, ישראל שללה מעמד תושבות מכמרים קתולים וניסתה אף למנוע פגישות של בישופים קתולים. [65] Israeli government attempts such as the failed 1998 effort to block the Holy See's appointment of Boutros Mouallem as archbishop of Galilee were condemned by the Vatican and other nations.[66] Suspicion and hostility towards Catholic clerics has led to incidents such as the October 2002 detention and harassment of Melkite Greek Catholic Archbishop Elias Chacour and Archbishop Boutros Mouallem, who were prevented from leaving Jerusalem to attend an interfaith meeting in London.[67]

הערות שוליים עריכה

  1. ^ anti-catholicism. Dictionary.com. WordNet 3.0. Princeton University. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/anti-catholicism (accessed: November 13, 2008).
  2. ^ See Building Unity, edited by Burgess and Gross
  3. ^ Smalcald Articles, Article four (1537)
    ...the Pope is the very Antichrist, who has exalted himself above, and opposed himself against Christ because he will not permit Christians to be saved without his power, which, nevertheless, is nothing, and is neither ordained nor commanded by God. This is, properly speaking to exalt himself above all that is called God as Paul says, 2 Thess. 2, 4. Even the Turks or the Tartars, great enemies of Christians as they are, do not do this, but they allow whoever wishes to believe in Christ, and take bodily tribute and obedience from Christians... Therefore, just as little as we can worship the devil himself as Lord and God, we can endure his apostle, the Pope, or Antichrist, in his rule as head or lord. For to lie and to kill, and to destroy body and soul eternally, that is wherein his papal government really consists... The Pope, however, prohibits this faith, saying that to be saved a person must obey him. This we are unwilling to do, even though on this account we must die in God's name. This all proceeds from the fact that the Pope has wished to be called the supreme head of the Christian Church by divine right. Accordingly he had to make himself equal and superior to Christ, and had to cause himself to be proclaimed the head and then the lord of the Church, and finally of the whole world, and simply God on earth, until he has dared to issue commands even to the angels in heaven...Smalcald Articles, Article 4
    Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope (1537)
    ...Now, it is manifest that the Roman pontiffs, with their adherents, defend [and practice] godless doctrines and godless services. And the marks [all the vices] of Antichrist plainly agree with the kingdom of the Pope and his adherents. For Paul, in describing Antichrist to the Thessalonians, calls him 2 Thess. 2, 3: an adversary of Christ, who opposeth and exalteth himself above all that is called God or that is worshiped, so that he as God sitteth in the temple of God. He speaks therefore of one ruling in the Church, not of heathen kings, and he calls this one the adversary of Christ, because he will devise doctrine conflicting with the Gospel, and will assume to himself divine authority...Treatise on the Power and in the Triglot translation of the Book of Concord
    Westminster Confession (1646)
    25.6. There is no other head of the Church but the Lord Jesus Christ: nor can the Pope of Rome in any sense be head thereof; but is that Antichrist, that man of sin and son of perdition, that exalts himself in the Church against Christ, and all that is called God.
    1689 Baptist Confession of Faith
    26.4. The Lord Jesus Christ is the Head of the church, in whom, by the appointment of the Father, all power for the calling, institution, order or government of the church, is invested in a supreme and sovereign manner; neither can the Pope of Rome in any sense be head thereof, but is that antichrist, that man of sin, and son of perdition, that exalteth himself in the church against Christ.
    In 1754, John Wesley published his Explanatory Notes Upon the New Testament, which is currently an official Doctrinal Standard of the United Methodist Church.See Section 3 - Our Doctrinal Standards and General Rules In his notes on Revelation chapter 13, he commented,
    "The whole succession of Popes from Gregory VII. are undoubtedly antichrist. Yet this hinders not, but that the last Pope in this succession will be more eminently the antichrist, the man of sin, adding to that of his predecessors a peculiar degree of wickedness from the bottomless pit. This individual person, as Pope, is the seventh head of the beast; as the man of sin, he is the eighth, or the beast himself."ee section of the book commentating on the Book of Revelation on the United Methodist Church website, or Explanatory Notes Upon the New Testament
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  12. ^ Annotation
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  14. ^ Letter to Horatio G. Spafford, March 17, 1814
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  48. ^ The Buggery Act
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קריאה נוספת עריכה

  • Anbinder; Tyler Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s 1992
  • Bennett; David H. The Party of Fear: From Nativist Movements to the New Right in American History University of North Carolina Press, 1988
  • Billingon, Ray. The Protestant Crusade, 1830–1860 (1938)
  • Blanshard; Paul.American Freedom and Catholic Power Beacon Press, 1949
  • Thomas M. Brown, "The Image of the Beast: Anti-Papal Rhetoric in Colonial America", in Richard O. Curry and Thomas M. Brown, eds., Conspiracy: The Fear of Subversion in American History (1972), 1-20.
  • Steve Bruce, No Pope of Rome: Anti-Catholicism in Modern Scotland (Edinburgh, 1985).
  • Elias Chacour: "Blood Brothers. A Palestinian Struggles for Reconciliation in the Middle East" ISBN 0-8007-9321-8 with Hazard, David, and Baker III, James A., Secretary (Foreword by) 2nd Expanded ed. 2003. (Archbishop of Galilee, born in Kafr Bir'im, the book covers his childhood growing up in the town. (The first six chapters of Blood Brothers can be downloaded here (the November 08, 2005 link).
  • Robin Clifton, "Popular Fear of Catholics during the English Revolution", Past and Present, 52 ( 1971), 23-55.
  • Cogliano; Francis D. No King, No Popery: Anti-Catholicism in Revolutionary New England Greenwood Press, 1995
  • David Brion Davis, "Some Themes of Counter-subversion: An Analysis of Anti-Masonic, Anti-Catholic and Anti-Mormon Literature", Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 47 (1960), 205-224.
  • Andrew M. Greeley, An Ugly Little Secret: Anti-Catholicism in North America 1977.
  • Henry, David. "Senator John F. Kennedy Encounters the Religious Question: I Am Not the Catholic Candidate for President." Contemporary American Public Discourse. Ed. H. R. Ryan. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, Inc., 1992. 177-193.
  • Higham; John. Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925 1955
  • Hinckley, Ted C. "American Anti-catholicism During the Mexican War" Pacific Historical Review 1962 31(2): 121-137. ISSN 0030-8684
  • Hostetler; Michael J. "Gov. Al Smith Confronts the Catholic Question: The Rhetorical Legacy of the 1928 Campaign" Communication Quarterly. Volume: 46. Issue: 1. 1998. Page Number: 12+.
  • Philip Jenkins, The New Anti-Catholicism: The Last Acceptable Prejudice (Oxford University Press, New ed. 2004). ISBN 0-19-517604-9
  • Jensen, Richard. The Winning of the Midwest: Social and Political Conflict, 1888–1896 (1971)
  • Jensen, Richard. "'No Irish Need Apply': A Myth of Victimization," Journal of Social History 36.2 (2002) 405-429, with illustrations
  • Karl Keating, Catholicism and Fundamentalism — The Attack on "Romanism" by "Bible Christians" (Ignatius Press, 1988). ISBN 0-89870-177-5
  • Kenny; Stephen. "Prejudice That Rarely Utters Its Name: A Historiographical and Historical Reflection upon North American Anti-Catholicism." American Review of Canadian Studies. Volume: 32. Issue: 4. 2002. pp: 639+.
  • Khalidi, Walid. "All that Remains: The Palestinian Villages Occupied and Depopulated by Israel in 1948." 1992. ISBN 0-88728-224-5.
  • McGreevy, John T. "Thinking on One's Own: Catholicism in the American Intellectual Imagination, 1928–1960." The Journal of American History, 84 (1997): 97-131.
  • J.R. Miller, "Anti-Catholic Thought in Victorian Canada" in Canadian Historical Review 65, no.4. (December 1985), p. 474+
  • Moore; Edmund A. A Catholic Runs for President 1956.
  • Moore; Leonard J. Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921–1928 University of North Carolina Press, 1991
  • E. R. Norman, Anti-Catholicism in Victorian England (1968).
  • D. G. Paz, "Popular Anti-Catholicism in England, 1850–1851", Albion 11 (1979), 331-359.
  • Thiemann, Ronald F. Religion in Public Life Georgetown University Press, 1996.
  • Carol Z. Wiener, "The Beleaguered Isle. A Study of Elizabethan and Early Jacobean Anti-Catholicism", Past and Present, 51 (1971), 27-62.
  • Wills, Garry. Under God 1990.
  • White, Theodore H. The Making of the President 1960 1961.

[[קטגוריה:שנאה]] [[קטגוריה:גזענות]] [[en:Anti-Catholicism]] [[cs:Antikatolicismus]] [[es:Anticatolicismo]] [[fr:Anticatholicisme]] [[ko:반가톨릭주의]] [[it:Antipapismo]] [[nl:Antipapisme]] [[no:Antikatolisisme]] [[pt:Anticatolicismo]] [[sk:Antikatolicizmus]] [[zh:反天主教]]

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